Muslims believe that God revealed his direct word for humanity to Muhammad (c. 570–632) through the angel Gabriel and earlier prophets, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last prophet, based on the Qur'anic phrase "Seal of the Prophets" and sayings of the prophet of Islam himself, and that his teachings for humanity will last until the Day of the Resurrection. Muslims assert that the main written record of revelation to humanity is the Qur'an, which is flawless, immutable, and which Muslims believe is the final revelation of God to humanity.

Muslims hold that Islam is the same belief as that of all the messengers sent by God to humanity since Adam, with the Qur'an, the text used by all sects of the Muslim faith, codifying the final revelation of God. Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book", and distinguishes them from "Polytheists". However, Muslims believe that some people have distorted the word of God by deliberately altering words in meaning, form and placement in their respective holy texts, such as Jews changing the Torah and Christians the Injeel. This perceived distortion is known as tahrif, or tabdi-l, meaning "alteration, substitution". This doctrine is accepted by most Muslims; some relatively small sects, such as Mu'tazili and Ismaili, as well as a few Islamic scholars and members of various liberal movements within Islam, reject the view that the Qur'an is a correction of Jewish and Christian scriptures.

  Islam

In studying Islam, one faces limitations on the historically reliable evidence about the religions founder, Muhammad. There is little of substance about Muhammads early life in the Quran, and the situation is not much better for his life after departure to Medina. It is no wonder that every biographer has had to turn to traditional Islamic sources to construct a full-blown narrative. However, the search for the historical Muhammad beyond the Quran remains problematic for two additional reasons.

First, as Ignaz Goldziher and Joseph Schacht showed, the hadith (with its corresponding Muslim jurisprudence) are clearly anchored in the life situation of Muslims two centuries after the prophet. There are no historically objective grounds to separate the spurious from the authentic in the hundreds of thousands of traditions examined by Sunni or Shiite scholars.

Second, recourse to non-Quranic sources leads to a further complication. If the sira, tafsir, hadith, and maghazi material becomes primary in a biography, scholars are faced with difficult and sometimes embarrassing data about the prophet. Do angels really have wings? Did the prophet teach that females make up the majority in hell? What did Muhammad believe about the djinn? Did Muhammad teach that Allah turned Jews into pigs and apes? What was his attitude about the beating of wives?

A proper evangelical Christian response to Islam must be multifaceted in light of the breadth of Islamic history, the vast spread of Islam globally, the variety within Islam, and the tangled sociopolitical realities of the Middle East and other parts of the Muslim world. In other words, our analysis of Islam must not be simplistic. We should not, for example, say that Islam is or is not a religion of peace,with no qualifications.

After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, it bears repeating that Christian witness to Islam should focus more on the positive news about the Christian gospel and less about the weaknesses in Islam. Though remarks below contain negative assessments about Islam in general and Muhammad in particular, the most important thing that a Christian can do with a Muslim is to bear witness to the full message given in Jesus Christ.

Here are the most important issues in Christian response to Islam:

1. Since Islam claims to be built on Jesus as one sent from God, Muslim denial that Jesus is the Son of God represents an error at the very heart of Islam. Muhammads failure to capture the essence of the New Testament teaching on Jesus shows how little he knew of the Gospel accounts. This error alone constitutes sufficient reason for abandoning any notion that Muhammad was a prophet of God. How could a prophet living after the time of Jesus be so misinformed about the identity of Gods Messiah?

2. The Muslim denial that Jesus died on the cross is further illustration that Muhammad had no real sense of what constitutes the heart of Christianity. The Islamic notion that Jesus was replaced on the cross shows complete disregard for the Gospel records and for ancient historical testimony about his death. Muslims are forced to deny the Crucifixion on the basis of a few verses in a book written six hundred years after the death of Jesus, while denying hundreds of verses that attest to his death in books written at the time of Jesus.

3. On a broader level, Christians must remain skeptical about the Quran, given its abundant distortion of biblical stories and teachings, not simply in relation to Jesus, but also in connection with the whole range of scriptural data. Muhammads knowledge of the Bible derived from his minimal contacts with Jews and Christians of his day and their reliance on extrabiblical traditions about the Jewish and Christian Scriptures.

Though the Quran contains many teachings in harmony with Christian faith and with Old Testament tradition, it is difficult to believe that it is a product of divine revelation, given its lack of order, its redundancy, and its increasing mean-spiritedness. It proves itself to be largely a product of Muhammads thirst for prophetic status and unquestioned authority, especially in light of his growing use of the sword as a defense for his divine calling.

4. Christians must also express serious reservations about the prophet Muhammad, especially in contrast to Jesus Christ. This does not mean treating Muhammad as if he were the embodiment of evil. However, the following aspects of Muhammads life are troubling: (a) his episodes of brutality, both in war and in dealing with some of his enemies; (b) his lack of tolerance toward critics and those who chose not to follow Islam; (c) his adoption of polygamy and arrogance toward his wives, especially by use of his prophetic status to crush dissent; (d) the consummation of his marriage to Aisha when she was very young; and (e) his marriage to Zaynab, his stepsons wife, while the stepson was still alive.

5. Christians must also reject central elements in the Islamic understanding of salvation. Islam has little concept of the New Testament doctrines of salvation by faith alone and grace alone, apart from the works of the law. Islams emphasis upon law and obedience leads to uncertainty about assurance of salvation. Furthermore, the Quran puts such an emphasis upon the sovereignty of Allahs will in salvation that the ordinary Muslim cannot be certain of his or her eternal destiny.

6. The Islamic treatment of women must remain a matter of concern for Christians. Though Christian tradition has often abused women, this is no reason for ignoring the plight of many women in many Muslim countries. Generally, Muslim women in non-Western countries have little access to the freedoms taken for granted by Muslim females in the West.

7. The lack of human rights and freedom under Islam must also continue to be the object of Christian critique. The repression of non-Muslims, in one form or another, has been a constant reality in Muslim history. This is not to say that Muslim leaders forced Jews or Christians to become Muslims; rather, Jews and Christians were generally treated as second-class citizens under Islamic caliphs.

Many Muslims have a distorted memory when it comes to the issue of the Crusades. They have every right to object to the wicked aspects of the Crusades carried about by the Church against Islam. However, the early Islamic empires were built on a crusade model, as Islamic armies overthrew Christian and Jewish peoples across North Africa, Palestine, and southern Europe.

 570        Birth in Mecca

575        After the death of his mother, Muhammad is raised by his grandfather and uncle

595        Marriage to Khadijah, a traveling merchant

610        Muhammad claims to have divine revelations through mystical experience, forming the basis of the Quran

613        Muhammad begins to preach a monotheistic mes sage and endures persecution

613        Muhammad deletes Satanic versesfrom the Quran because of false revelation that said worship of three idols was acceptable

619        After the death of Khadijah, Muhammad marries Sawdah, the first of his many other wives

620        Muhammad is taken by the angel Gabriel to Jerusalem and ascends to seventh heaven on a ladder (called the miraj)

622        Escape to Medina to avoid persecution in Mecca

624        Muhammad defeats Meccan enemies at the battle of Badr

627        Muhammad marries Zaynab, his cousin, who was previously married to the prophets adopted son Zayd

627        Muhammad raids the Jewish clan of Qurayzah and orders the deaths of hundreds of Jewish men

628        Treaty signed with Meccan leaders at Hudaybiyyah

630        Muhammad conquers his enemies at Mecca and removes idols from city

632        Muhammad dies on June 8 after a period of ill health

IThe Five Pillars of Islam

1.         Shahadah (Confession of Faith): There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger.

2.         Salat (Prayer): All Muslims are to pray five times per day, facing Mecca, the holiest city.

3.         Zakat (Tithing): Muslims must give financially to the poor and the needy. This involves giving at least 2.5 percent of their total wealth.

4.         Sawm (Fasting): During the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims are to refrain from food, water, and sex from sunrise to sunset.

5.         Hajj (Pilgrimage). As much as possible, at least once in a lifetime Muslims are to travel to Mecca to engage in rituals of prayer and worship at the central shrine in Islams holiest city.

The Prophet

        Most Muslims believe that Muhammad was sinless.

        Muhammad is not viewed as divine.

        Most Muslims believe that the prophet was illiterate.

        The prophetic status of Muhammad is not to be questioned.

        Muhammad provides the greatest example for all aspects of life.

        The traditions about the prophet are known as hadith.

        The prophet was given permission by Allah to have twelve wives.

The Quran

        Muslims believe the Quran is the perfect Word of Allah.

        The Quran contains 114 chapters, or surahs.

        Muslims believe that the Quran was revealed to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel.

        The Quranic material was composed from 610 through Muhammads death in 632.

        The final compilation of the Quran was completed about 650.

Other Major Muslim Beliefs

        Islam started with Adam and not with Muhammad.

        Salvation is by the will of God through human obedience to Gods law, or shariah.

        Though humans are imperfect, they are not fallen through original sin.

        Those chosen by God for salvation will enter heaven, or paradise.

        The damned will burn in eternal torment in hell.

        All countries and peoples should follow Islam and Islamic law.

        Muslims are to engage in jihad, which often means private spiritual struggle but also means defense of Muslim territory and military aggression.

        God will restore the world at the end of time through a coming human leader known as the mahdi.

        Muslim males can marry up to four wives.

Muslim Groups

        Almost 90 percent of Muslims belong to the Sunni tradition.

        Shiite Islam is popular in Iran and parts of Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria.

        Sufi Islam represents the mystical path in Islam.

        The Islam practiced in most Muslim countries is heavily influenced by local folk customs.

Muslim Views of Jesus

        Jesus was a prophet of God but not the Son of God.

        He was born of the Virgin Mary.

        He performed many miracles.

        He did not die on the cross.

        He did not rise from an empty tomb.

        He ascended to heaven after his death.

        He was a faithful Muslim, or follower of Allah.

        He predicted the ministry of Muhammad.

632        Death of the prophet Muhammad

634        Death of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, or successor to Muhammad

637        Capture of Jerusalem by Muslim leaders

661        Assassination of Ali, the fourth caliph

680        Murder of Husain, grandson of the Prophet

690        Construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem

728        Death of Hasan al-Basri, early Sufi leader

732        Muslims defeated at the Battle of Tours

750        Rise of the Abbasid Dynasty, based in Baghdad

765        Split among Shiite Muslims over new leader

850        Death of al-Bukhari, specialist on Islamic hadith

940        Twelfth Shia Imam becomes the hidden imam

950        Death of Al-Farabi, the Muslim Aristotle

1037        Death of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), a great Islamic philosopher

1099        Crusaders capture Jerusalem

1111        Death of al-Ghazali, second to the Prophet as spiritual leader

1187        Saladin recaptures Jerusalem

1258        Mongols sack Baghdad

1300        Rise of Ottoman Empire

1315        Death of Raymond Lull, Christian missionary to Islam

1389        Ottomans defeat Balkan allies at Battle of Kosovo

1453        Ottomans capture Constantinople and rename it Istanbul.

1492        End of Muslim Spain

1517        Salim I conquers Egypt

1520        Rise of Sulayman the Magnificent, the Ottoman emperor

1563        Akbar gains power in India

1683        Vienna under siege by Muslim armies

1798        Napoleon in Egypt

1803        Wahhabi movement gains control in Saudi Arabia

1830        France occupies Algeria

1881        British take control of Egypt

1902        Qasim Amin pioneers feminism in Egypt

1910        Oil prospects in Persia

1924        Secularization of Turkey

1928        Muslim Brotherhood founded

1932        Political independence in Iraq

1947        Creation of Pakistan

1948        Founding of the state of Israel

1962        Algeria gains independence

1964        Formation of the Palestinian Liberation Organization

1965        Assassination of Malcolm X in New York City

1967        Six Day War between Israel and Egypt

1973        October War between Israel and Arabs

1977        Anwar Sadat makes peace with Israel

1979        Islamic revolution in Iran

1979        USSR invades Afghanistan

1982        Israeli invasion of Lebanon

1982        Assassination of Anwar Sadat

1987        Intifada begins in Palestine

1989        Iranian fatwa against Salman Rushdie for his The Satanic Verses

1991        Gulf War to liberate Kuwait

1993        Bombing of the World Trade Center

2000        Breakdown of Israel-Palestine peace talks

2001        September 11attack on America

2001        Defeat of Taliban in Afghanistan

2002        Heightened suicide bombing in Israel

2002        Israeli government approves security wall

2003        USA attacks Iraq

2003        Increased anti-Semitic elements in Muslim thought

2004        Death of Arafat and renewal in hopes for peace

  Islamic Terrorism

The modern world has been consumed since September 11, 2001 with Osama bin Laden (b. 1957) and his version of Islam. Islamic terrorism is the military outcome of the growing radicalization in Islam since the early 1800s, both in response to the spread of Western colonialism and the demise of Muslim political supremacy. Todays Islamic terrorists are particularly angered over the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the role of the United States in the Middle East.

Osama bin Laden traces his radicalism to the Wahhabism of Saudi Arabia, a movement that began with the reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (170387). The Wahhabis advocated a puritanical and strict reading of Islamic law and belief. The Wahhabis threatened the interests of the Ottoman Turks and, in concert with the Saud dynasty, eventually gained control of Mecca and Medina, Islams holiest cities.

A fundamentalist thrust in Islam emerged in Egypt as well, with the formation of the Muslim Brotherhood (also known as Al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun) in 1927. Tormented first by the presence of British rule and then by a tepid Muslim government, Brotherhood founder Hassan al-Banna and Sayyid Qutb, his chief intellectual heir, sought by any means, including violence, to restore true Islamic rule to Egypt.

The brotherhood started branches in Jordan and Syria, and militant groups in India, Iran, and Iraq imitated its radicalism. Muhammad Nawab-Safavi started his Fedayeen-e-Islami movement in Iran in the 1930s and told his followers: Throw away your beads and get a gun: for beads keep you silent whilst guns silence the enemies of Islam.Abul Ala Maududi organized his militant Jamaat-e-Islami in the Punjab in 1941.

Western awareness of militant Islam came with the radical overthrow of the Shah of Iran in 1979 and the establishment of harsh Islamic rule under the Ayatollah Khomeini. Islamic terrorism came to the west with the bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993, the explosions at U.S. embassies in Africa, the attack on the uss Cole in Yemen, and then the horrors of September 11. Recent terrorist bombings in Madrid and London have intensified concerns in the West about militant Islam.

Islamic terrorists like bin Laden use the concept of jihad to defend their actions. It is obvious that jihad in Islamic history carries the meaning of military action as well as spiritual struggle. However, thankfully most Muslims believe that nothing in the life of the prophet Muhammad, the Quran, or Islamic law allows for the wholesale and indiscriminate violence carried out by Al-Qaeda and other Islamic terrorist groups.

Significant attention in debates about Islamic terrorism has been given to the argument about a Clash of Civilizationsbetween Islam and the West. This view was advanced first by Harvard professor Samuel Huntington in a famous essay in Foreign Affairs (Summer 1993). Writing just after the first Gulf War, Huntington analyzed the competing ideologies of our time.

On this, a number of Muslim intellectuals are calling for a new and radical self-criticism within Islam. This point has been articulated best by Kanan Makiya, author of Republic of Fear (on Saddam Husseins Iraq) and Cruelty and Silence. Makiya wrote in a London Observer article: Arabs and Muslims need today to face up to the fact that their resentment at America has long since become unmoored from any rational underpinnings it might once have had.

  Nation of Islam

The rise of the Black Muslim movement is one of the most fascinating aspects of Islam in the United States. Its roots lie in a resurgence of black nationalism at the turn of the twentieth century, represented most significantly in the work of Marcus Garvey (18871940), a central figure in the Rastafarian movement, and Noble Drew Ali (18861929), founder of the Moorish Science Temple, another black nationalist group.

Black Nationalism took its formative shape through the influence of Fard Muhammad, who started preaching the Black Muslim message in Detroit in July 1930 and founded the Nation of Islam (NOI). Although he disappeared after four years, he influenced a man named Elijah Muhammad, who heard Fard speak in 1930. Elijah Muhammad, born in 1897, accepted Fards message about the supremacy of the black race and the devilish nature of the white race.

Elijah Muhammad moved to Chicago in 1932 and led the NOI movement until his death in 1975. He was a controversial leader, not only because of his racist views, but also due to his extramarital affairs, which shocked his NOI followers, including Malcolm X. Malcolm X, born as Malcolm Little in 1925, converted to Islam in 1948, joined the NOI in 1953, and became a leader in the movement.

In April 1963 Malcolm X confronted Elijah about his adultery, and the leader tried to rationalize his behavior. That led to some estrangement between the two, heightened by comments made by Malcolm X about President Kennedys assassination in November. Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam in early 1964 and was killed by three of its radical members on February 21, 1965.

The role of Malcolm X was then picked up by Louis Farrakhan (b. May 11, 1933), who became Elijahs national minister in 1965 and minister of the movements mosque in Harlem. After Elijahs death ten years later, Farrakhan had increasing disagreements with Wallace Deen Muhammad, Elijahs son and successor. From 1975 through 1985, Wallace steered the Nation of Islam on a more moderate course, shut his NOI down in 1985, and emerged as a major Sunni leader in the United States.

These changes did not sit well with Farrakhan, who declared in November of 1977 that he was recreating the Nation of Islam on the more radical teachings of Elijah Muhammad. In the last quarter of a century, Farrakhan has become one of the most powerful and controversial black leaders in America. On October 6, 1995, he led the Million Man March for blacks in Washington. His power in the black community remains regardless of Farrakhans wild accusations about whites (particularly Jews) and the exotic theories in NOI ideology, including extravagant claims about visits to a man-made planet. 1212 See the discussion in Mattias Gardell, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996). 

It has been argued in the last decade that Farrakhan has grown more moderate in his ideology. This is disputed by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), which provides quotations from his speeches to illustrate continuing anti-Semitism. The ADL gives this statement from Farrakhan on the Holocaust: German Jews financed Hitler right here in America. International bankers financed Hitler and poor Jews died while big Jews were at the root of what you call the Holocaust. Little Jews died while big Jews made money.In spite of such language, the Nation of Islam denies that its leader is racist or anti-Semitic.